Physiology II (BSPHY121) 8 Credits

Physiology is the study of the normal functioning whole organism made up of cells and organ systems. In medical science, this branch of biology is narrowed down to the study of the normal functioning of humans. Thus, physiology is the branch of medicine that focuses on the main biochemical and physical principles involved in the appropriate functioning of humans. The most important of these functions is the concept of homeostasis, which describes the auto-regulatory properties of a living being.

In this course, the student will be introduced to the physiology of different organ systems including cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, reproductive, gastrointestinal and renal systems. For optimal comprehension, a basic understanding of human anatomy and histology is necessary, along with a good grasp of biochemistry and biophysics.

In this course, students will be able to: Know the physiological anatomy of the human heart and blood vessels, their role in circulation, various mechanisms involved in the circulation of blood, techniques that help to study the functioning of the heart and their application in diagnosing various disorders. Know the importance of blood pressure and its maintenance and variations of blood pressure and disorders related to it. Know the physiological anatomy of human lungs and mechanisms involved in respiration and its regulations, various pressures in the process of respiration and associated disorders, mechanism of transport of respiratory gases, their mode of transport and associated disorders, techniques used to assess the functionality of lungs like spirometry, Know the parts and functions of the digestive system and various mechanisms involved in the process of digestion and absorption of various biomolecules and disorders associated with digestion Know the parts and functions of the renal system and mechanism of urine formation and disorders associated with abnormal renal functions Know the structure and functions of the skin. Know the physiological anatomy of endocrine and reproductive organs. Know the actions of various hormones released by the endocrine glands, their mechanism of action and the disorders associated with variations in their normal level. Know the processes taking place in the male and female reproductive system, ideas about the process of pregnancy and associated features, and various family planning techniques.

This course will be presented using lectures, slides, and videos. This course also provides the student with an understanding of the principles and concepts of cardiac, lung, gastrointestinal and kidney functions. The students can use the LMS platform known as Lecturio. On this subject rests the foundation of the more complex concepts of pathology and medicine, specifically how disease processes are initiated when physiological processes are affected.

As the medical profession progressively focuses on the molecular aspects of diseases, physicians must have a good understanding of biomolecules and cellular machinery to help understand the many changes and interventions that are being gradually discovered. This course will be presented using lectures, slides, and videos. The students can use the LMS platform known as Lecturio. 

Biochemistry II  (BSBIO122) 6 credits

The substances and reactions that are the subjects of the study of Biochemistry are also important players in the understanding of cellular biology, microbiology or the effects organisms can have on the human body, and the pharmacologic effects of medications.

In this semester the students will be able to understand Intermediary metabolism and biochemical mechanisms in selected disease states. The student is prepared accordingly through a discussion of the principles of biochemistry including anabolic and catabolic pathways as permitted by the generation and use of energy. Biochemical mechanisms are utilized to justify particular signs and symptoms noted in certain clinical conditions. 

This course gives more details on how humans are linked with non-communicable diseases like Diabetes, Hypertension, coronary heart disease and obesity. The importance of Biochemistry in diagnosis where the laboratory tests are vital to day-to-day clinical care. Students know the importance of all types of biochemical laboratory tests which are vital in diagnosis and prognosis. The theory and application of classical and emerging technologies in biochemical lab analysis will be covered. (Lecture/Lab). This course will be presented using lectures, slides, and videos. The students can use the LMS platform known as Lecturio. 

Gross Anatomy II (BSANA123) 6 credits

Anatomy focuses on the gross structure of organs and their function, and through clinical correlations, relates each to clinical medicine. An Anatomical Learning Resource Center has been established to utilize computer-based instruction, anatomical models, radiographic materials as well as supervised laboratory sessions dissecting various parts of the human body. This gross anatomy course will take you on a fascinating journey through the anatomical landscape, from the macroscopic level down to the cellular intricacies. Gain a profound understanding of the organization and relationships between organs, tissues, and systems that collectively form the human organism. Throughout this course, you will work with plastinated cadavers, examine anatomical models, and engage in hands-on learning experiences to grasp the complexity of the musculoskeletal, nervous, cardiovascular, and other vital systems. Each session will unravel the mysteries of human anatomy, emphasizing clinical correlations and the practical application of anatomical knowledge.

As you go into the depths of human anatomy, you will not only acquire a solid foundation for medical and healthcare knowledge but also cultivate a deep appreciation for the beauty and functionality of the human body. The study of gross anatomy becomes a gateway to understanding the intricacies of life and serves as a cornerstone for medical education and research. This school provides the Anatomage Table which is the most technologically advanced virtual dissection table for anatomy education. The Table includes ultra-high quality (UHQ) visualization for students to view photorealistic anatomical structures. Research has proven that working with the Table improves student retention of knowledge and improved test scores.

The Human Gross Anatomy II course in semester II provides a comprehensive study of trunk anatomy, the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis which are meticulously explored to provide a thorough understanding of the structures. Beginning with the thorax, attention is given to the thoracic cage, consisting of ribs, sternum, and costal cartilage, highlighting their anatomical landmarks. Additionally, the muscles of the thoracic wall, such as the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, are discussed in detail, emphasizing their roles in respiration. Furthermore, the thoracic organs, including the heart, lungs, and great vessels, are examined, elucidating their intricate relationships and clinical considerations, thereby laying a solid foundation for understanding cardiorespiratory pathology.

Transitioning to the abdomen, the focus shifts to the abdominal wall and its musculature, encompassing the rectus abdominis, external and internal obliques, and transversus abdominis, with emphasis on their functions in providing support and stability to the abdominal contents. Discussions also delve into the inguinal region, elucidating the anatomy of the inguinal ligament, inguinal canal, and hernias, and their clinical correlations, essential for diagnosing and managing abdominal wall pathologies. Moreover, attention is directed towards the upper abdomen, where the anatomy, relationships, and clinical considerations of organs like the liver, stomach, and spleen are thoroughly explored, facilitating an understanding of gastrointestinal anatomy and pathology.

 Moving further down to the pelvic cavity, the focus extends to the anatomy of abdominal organs such as the small and large intestines, kidneys, and the urinary bladder. Simultaneously, detailed discussions on the pelvic bones, pelvic floor muscles, and reproductive organs provide insights into pelvic anatomy and its clinical implications in conditions like pelvic organ prolapse and pelvic floor dysfunction. Additionally, neurovascular structures, including the abdominal aorta, and inferior vena cava are elucidated, highlighting their distribution and clinical relevance.

In the posterior thorax, superficial and deep back muscles are explored in detail, including the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, and rhomboids, along with discussions on their innervation and clinical correlations such as scapular winging and shoulder movement disorders. Further insights into the anatomy of the spinal column, including regional variations and clinical considerations, are provided, along with discussions on vascular structures and clinical considerations related to the blood supply, back pain, spinal deformities, and nerve compression syndromes, thereby ensuring a comprehensive understanding of trunk anatomy from both anterior and posterior perspectives. 

Genetics & Molecular Biology II (BSGMB124) 4 credits

The course will discuss the organization and major features of the human genome, including replication, gene expression, epigenetics, and the role of non-coding RNA. It will also explain the consequences of mutations and polymorphisms, inherited diseases, and molecular aspects of major common diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, vascular and coronary disease. This course emphasizes gene therapy. Students learn about various genetic techniques such as blotting techniques including Southern blotting, western blotting, northern blotting, DNA microarray, Recombinant DNA technology, CRISPR techniques and PCR. Students learn about chromosomal abnormalities like Down’s syndrome etc., This course mainly teaches genetic disorders including single gene disorders(mendelian disorders e.g., autosomal and sex-linked disorders), and multifactorial disorders like Diabetes and Hypertension. This course covers population genetics and introduces recent and ongoing discoveries so that their future applications may be understood and make students familiar with the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate the genetic risk among populations. In this semester students will have a proper understanding of Multifactorial inheritance, cancer Genetics and genetics of certain congenital abnormalities. This course will be presented using lectures, slides, and videos. 

This course also provides the student with an understanding of the principles and concepts upon which current clinical genetic practice (diagnosis, treatment and counselling) is based. The students can use the LMS platform known as Lecturio. 

Biostatistics and Epidemiology (BSBED125) 4 credits

This course is designed to introduce students to basic concepts of epidemiology and biostatistics. They will learn to identify health-related problems or phenomena in communities and describe their epidemiological distribution and possible determinants, basic measures of morbidity and mortality and learn to calculate them.

Students will learn and apply appropriate statistical methods in health data analysis; and organize and present analyzed data in logical and meaningful ways. The importance of basic concepts and principles of public health surveillance systems, including screening programs, in monitoring the health status of a population will be reviewed.

The course will describe and discuss the concept of disease outbreak and its detection, investigation and control and explain how epidemiological studies contribute towards the overall health and well-being of population groups and communities. Taught via lectures, worksheets, and Class assignments.

Students will also be introduced to the study of community and public health, primary health care, epidemiology and treatment of diseases (non-communicable and communicable) on a global basis. They will study the social determinants of health, health equity, social justice, and governmental policy and their impact on the distribution of health services and health outcomes in low-resource settings within and internationally. Students will be taught via lectures including Guest lectures from Public Health Specialists working in the field, assigned readings, videos, and trips to Health Care and other Public Health facilities. The students can use the LMS platform known as Lecturio.

 Cell Biology and Histology II (BSCBH126) 4 credits

The histology course in semester II provides a comprehensive study of tissues at a microscopic level. It is fundamental to understanding the structure and function of organs and systems within the human body. It encompasses various techniques for sample collection, fixation, embedding, and staining, facilitating examination under a light microscope. Cell types and tissues are categorized and studied into epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous, blood, and lymphoid tissues. Epithelial tissues, including simple and stratified epithelium, have several functions such as absorption, secretion, and protection, while glands, both endocrine and exocrine, play crucial roles in hormone secretion and external secretion. Connective tissues, ranging from loose to dense and adipose, provide structural support and insulation, with cartilage and bone tissues contributing to skeletal structure and resilience are also studied in this course.

Moreover, muscle tissues, comprising skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle types, exhibit distinct structural and functional properties essential for movement, cardiac contraction, and organ function regulation. Nervous tissue, composed of neurons and neuroglia, forms the intricate network of the central and peripheral nervous systems, facilitating communication and coordination within the body. Blood and lymphoid tissues, including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and lymph nodes, contribute to immune function and oxygen transport. Endocrine glands, such as the pituitary and thyroid, produce hormones that regulate various physiological processes. The integumentary system, comprised of skin layers and accessory structures like hair follicles and glands, serves protective, thermoregulatory, and sensory functions. Histological examination of the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems reveals the intricate architecture of blood vessels, alveoli, gastrointestinal tract, nephrons, and reproductive organs, providing insights into their structure-function relationships and pathological conditions.